The Sorraia is portrayed wrongly in most literature: Contrary to what one reads in many books, it is not a pony, but a horse, and it must not be confused with the Garrano, a native North Iberian pony. The Sorraia is not a relative of the Garrano, but a completely different type of horse.

The few Sorraias alive today – approx. 200 – are mostly in private hands. Therefore, their destiny is uncertain. Nowadays, Sorraias are not allowed to live wild anymore, although some herds have to fend for themselves all year round, with little or no help from Man.

All Sorraias descend from only 11 or 12 animals that d’Andrade secured in the 1930s, and inbreeding is therefore extremely high. Unfortunately, inbreeding is often unnecessarily intensified even further.

The Sorraia horse has no history as a man-made breed. DNA-analyses seem to indicate a close relationship to the Tarpan, but more research is necessary to prove or disprove that. Sorraias can be tamed and turned into good riding and work horses - sometimes they even make outstanding riding horses –, but they can maintain their primitiveness, instincts, specific traits and qualities only if a nucleus herd is allowed to live wild in some sort of a preserve. So far, only one such preserve has been established.

What is relevant is Ruy d’Andrade’s scientific work, and the horses he left to us. Again, who claims d’Andrade to have been wrong needs to provide evidence, not hearsay. The thing to do is to go directly to the source, and that means reading what Ruy d’Andrade had to say about the Sorraias and his research and compare with horses and modern research. D’Andrade was perhaps the most respected expert on Iberian horses of his time, and one of the most prominent breeders of Lusitano/Andalusian horses. He would have known it if the horses which he named Sorraias were a man-made breed. If he was convinced to have found a remnant population of an indigenous, wild, Iberian horse, he was a lot more qualified to draw that conclusion than anyone nowadays, 80 years later. He has often lectured on the Sorraia horse, in 1935 he did so at the XII. International Zoological Congress in Lisbon, which would have been absurd if he had been dealing with a man-made breed. In all his publications he described the Sorraia horse consistently as a direct descendant of a primeval horse, ancestral to the Andalusian and Lusitano. To simply ignore his work and rely rather on an alleged remark of one of his grandsons to "prove" him wrong is hardly convincing, and definetely not scientific.
 

Note: There is no mentioning of "grey" by d’Andrade as found in some translations. The Portuguese term for a grey horse is "ruço", the term for grulla is "rato"; d’Andrade used the term "rato".

Ruy d’Andrade explained that, after this, he paid more attention to the characteristics he observed in this wild herd and explains that he found more than 300 (more or less domestic) animals with these characteristics in the valley of the Tejo, in the Alentejo region, and in the valley of the Guadalquivir.

The presence of atypically colored horses in those last Sorraias d’Andrade found can hardly come as a surprise with a population that obviously was on the brink of extinction, and which must have included some crossbreds. In no way does it mean, let alone prove, that dun or grulla wasn’t the original color of the Sorraia horse. On the contrary, his research convinced d’Andrade that dun/grulla was indeed the original color of the Sorraia horse, and the Iberian wild horse has always been a dun-factor, convex-headed horse according to historic data spanning over 2000 years – if the prehistoric cave paintings are taken into account, even much, much longer.

Let’s assume for the sake of argument that for some reason the mallard became almost extinct and all that was left were a few dozen or so – chances are for some of the remaining ones to be off-colored hybrids. Now, if you were to step in at the last minute and preserve the mallard for future generations, would you pick the odd-colored ones, or would you rather pick the ones that you know are of the true color of the wild mallard? And if later in your conservation project group some odd-colored ones would crop out, would you not cull them in order to preserve the mallard as you originally knew it?

Well, that is exactly what d’Andrade did in regard to the Sorraia horse.

It’s irrelevant whether there were some other horses in that first herd he encountered that showed a mixed ancestry by way of a different color, or in the herds he picked his foundation stock from. What is relevant is that he – a scientist and horse expert of the highest reputation – selected the horses which, according to his knowledge, represented the indigenous wild horse of that region. This he maintained in all his books and articles and tried to document through the evidence he found in his research. Whoever claims he was wrong needs to provide hard evidence for that.

Finally, state-of-the-art technology proved the singular status of the Sorraia horse. While mitochondrial DNA sequencing so far did not back up the theory of the Sorraia being THE ancestor of the Lusitano and Andalusian, it did prove the Sorraia to be a genetic treasure! Jansen et al. in their work "Mitochondrial DNA and the origins of the domestic horse" **) found three genotypes in Iberian horses, one of which, D1, dominates the Iberian breeds (Andalusian and Lusitano, and also the Barb from Northwest Africa), and one, the Sorraia's, is completely different! While one may be able to find the Sorraia's genotype in a Lusitano or Andalusian if one searches long enough, the Jansen study found no Andalusian of the Sorraia genotype!

If all d'Andrade had done was picking randomly some duns and grullas from his or other breeders' herds, then the Sorraia would have the same genotype that the other Iberian horses have! However, the Sorraia's genotype is clearly different.

It is almost incredible that Ruy d'Andrade, armed with nothing but his expert eye, going by primitive phenotypic characteristics, picked the foundation horses for his preservation project unerringly, thus saving horses which we now find to have a rare and unique genotype!

It should be mentioned that a large percentage of Lusitanos have a genotype (A3) that is rather closely related to the Sorraia's. Both genotypes developed from the same branch. However, there is no evidence that the Lusitano's (A3) developed from the Sorraia's (JSO41, resp. A1). This means there is evidence for a relatedness of Sorraias and Lusitanos, but more research is necessary (and is currently being done).

With the Sorraia having a different and very old genotype, and with its absolutely primitive phenotype and wild behavior, and considering the fact that the Sorraia has no history as a domestic breed, it seems rather likely that the remaining Sorraias are a remnant population of a true wild horse form, or subspecies.

Mitochondrial DNA sequencing

In researching relatednesses and phylogenetics, mitochondrial DNA sequencing is the state-of-the-art technology. The mitochondrial DNA is located outside the nuclear DNA. In contrast to nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) cannot be altered through selective breeding.

What can mitochondrial DNA do?

1. It is the only reliable method to determine relatednesses between breeds and/or populations, and relatednesses of individuals to populations. In the latter case, bloodtyping, for instance, would fail completely.

2. It is the instrument to determine phylogenetic facts, i. e. ancestral relationships. For instance: Japanese geneticists had established through mtDNA sequencing that the Mongolian wild horse (a.k.a. Przewalski’s horse) is not an ancestor of our domestic breeds. This was later confirmed by the work of Jansen et al.**).

Again through mtDNA sequencing, it was determined that the Neanderthaler was not an ancestor of the human race.

While mtDNA is passed on only through the maternal line, the presence of a certain mtDNA pattern in an animal proves beyond doubt that, at least through the maternal line, this animal is indeed related to the population which this pattern is typical for. Through mtDNA sequencing, Jansen et al. proved that our domestic horses stem from several different post-glacial wild horse forms, or subspecies, and also established that domestication of the horse took place in several geographically distant areas.

As far as geographically-linked genotypes are concerned, the study established those for North/Northwest European ponies, for the Mongolian wild horse, and for South Iberia/North Africa. Basically, three South Iberian genotypes were established: one found in most Andalusians and Lusitanos, as well as Barbs (D1); another one found in many Lusitanos (A3), the third one being that for the Sorraia (JSO41 resp. A1), the two latter ones possibly being variations of one and the same genotype.

Andalusians and Lusitanos for a long time represented one and the same breed, and only rather recently were they divided into separate studbooks/registries. The fact that a different genotype is found in a rather large percentage of Lusitanos (possibly up to 40%) indicates that originally, a different wild ancestor may have been responsible for the Lusitanos, or has had a significant influence on that breed.

Two mtDNA patterns were found in the Sorraia horse (A1 and JSO41), which are closely related and represent two different boughs on the same branch of the phylogenetic tree. The A3 genotype in the Lusitanos in turn is related to the JSO41 genotype of the Sorraia, and the two are again separate boughs on the same branch.

It is significant that A1 and JSO41 have not been found in Iberian horses other than Sorraias! This rules out an origin of the Sorraia as an offshoot of the Andalusian breed - if Sorraias were nothing but "ordinary Iberian horses" simply selected for the dun factor, they would have the same mtDNA type as found in Andalusians and other Iberian horses.

The mtDNA patterns found in Sorraias are also sometimes found in a variety of horse breeds. This is only natural, as our domestic horse breeds are usually a mix of populations, types, and breeds; therefore, a mixture of genotypes is usually found in horse breeds.

*) d'Andrade, "O Cavalo do Sorraia", 1945, Boletim Pecuario, XIII

**) Jansen, Forster, Levine, Oelke, Hurles, Weber, Olek, "Mitochondrial DNA and the origins of the domestic horse", 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

 

"Animals that, through selection and breeding, have come to resemble one another and pass those traits uniformly to their offspring".

Jay L. Lush in "The Genetics of Populations" offers this definition:

"A breed is a group of domestic animals, termed such by common consent of the breeders, … a term which arose among breeders of livestock, created, one might say, for their own use, and no one is warranted in assigning to this word a scientific definition and in calling the breeders wrong when they deviate from the formulated definition. It is their word, and the breeders common usage is what we must accept as the correct definition".

Lush is making a significant point here by linking the term "breed" to domestic animals. Besides the fact that a breed has an accepted standard of perfection, the term "breed" can be applied only for domestic animals (and plants), it means that this population of animals share common characteristics because Man has selected and bred for them.
 

So, what constitutes a species?

According to Herre*), animals that constitute a reproductive unit (i.e. mate voluntarily and, in doing so, reproduce with unlimited fertility) belong to one and the same species. Even if they differ considerably in phenotype and behavior, as long as they belong to one reproductive unity they do belong to one and the same species. This definition of a species has been established a long time ago.

The Biological Species Concept (BSC) of MAYR (1942), which is widely accepted in the scientific community, defines species as follows:

"Individuals of different species do not interbreed under natural conditions".

Zoologist and geneticist Thomas Jansen explains:

"This means that fertility or sterility of the offsprings can be an indicator whether the parents belong to one species or not, but this is no necessary prerequisite. 'Natural conditions' means more: pre-mating factors such as different ethological mechanisms, for example different courtship displays, will prevent mating of two individuals of different species in the wild. One example are donkeys and horses: Mules and hinnies (as a product of crossbreeding in captivity) are well known, they are not always sterile. But a horse and a donkey will never mate in the wild because of their very different courtship displays. They belong to different species, no one can seriously cast doubt on this."

Within a species, one can often find populations which differ considerably in phenotype, behavior, etc., and which pass on their characteristics reliably to their offspring. Such a population is considered a "subspecies", or "race", or "variety".

The various wild ancestors of today's horses, as different as they were in phenotype, size, and behavior, still were subspecies within the one species.

Other equids, e. g. Equus asinus, the ass or donkey, are related to the horse closely enough to even make bastardization possible, but such crosses only occur through human intervention. Horses and asses don't mate voluntarily if they have a choice. Therefore, horses and asses represent different species, as do hemiones ("half asses"), and zebras.

Thomas Jansen, regarding the question of Mongolian wild horse and domestic horse belonging to separate species, explains:

"If some people claim that the Mongolian wild (Przewalski’s) horse is another species than the domestic horse, then this is in fact not true. Future research may indicate that the Mongolian wild horse is possibly in the process of forming its own species (in some ten thousand years). However, today, the Mongolian wild horse and the domestic horse belong to the same species, as they interbreed under natural conditions, and with unrestricted fertility.

The only conclusion is: One may define the Mongolian wild horse as a subspecies. It is a horse and nothing else.

Another example is the relationship between wolf and dog. The argumentation would be the same: Wolves and dogs interbreed under natural conditions and produce fertile offspring. Therefore, they belong to one species."

Zoologist Rainer Willmann points out**) that species are separated as such due to the absence of an interchange of genes:

"Reproductive isolation means absence of gene flow from one population into another due to biological mechanisms. This means, strictly speaking, that all members of such unit – species – cannot, under natural conditions, have fertile descendants with members of another species. They are 'genetically separated" from one another."

In contrast to other definitions of the term "species", which lack objectivity, Willmann goes on to say:

"Because reproductive isolation is a real, naturally developed phenomenon dividing the organic diversity, the classification based on this order is also real. Biospecies are therefore real units of nature."

Within a species, subspecies may be found. They belong to the same biological, reproductive unit, but can be recognized and classified due to different phenotypical and behavioral characteristics, and – with modern moleculargenetic methods – by genotype.

"A subspecies can be defined as 'something like a natural race', or variety, which is in most cases founded by geographical separation", says Jansen. "The Mongolian wild horse is not the forefather of our domestic horses, but it is also not another species. As it is easily recognized due to specific phenotypical traits (and, by the way, also by its unique genetic patterns), it can only be named a subspecies."

Again, there is the very old genetic type found in the Sorraia, different from other Iberian horses, its absolutely primitive phenotype and wild behavior - and there is the fact that the Sorraia has no history as a domestic breed. All this suggests that the remaining Sorraias are a remnant population of a true wild horse form, or subspecies.

If Sorraias don't exist in the wild anymore, if they have been bred in captivity for decades now, if their data is recorded in a studbook in Portugal, if they are bred by some like a domestic breed, then all that doesn't take away from the fact that their origin is not that of a domestic breed, that they in all probability do represent a subspecies. After all, the very same happened to the Mongolian wild horse: It survived only in captivity, has been bred in zoos for decades, has a world-wide studbook - yet still nobody claims it to be a breed, although their breeding history in captivity is longer than the Sorraia's. The few that roam wild in the desert of Central Asia now have been re-introduced, they were bred in domestication, or stem from animals bred in domestication.

It is difficult, if not impossible, to actually prove the status of any horse as a wild subspecies, and therefore, it is difficult to do so for the Sorraia. However, it is equally difficult to prove the opposite! What kind of evidence would we consider proof one way or another? Beside the Mongolian wild horse, the Tarpan is recognized by many as a wild subspecies. The mtDNA research so far indicates that Sorraia and Tarpan are of the same genotype (the scientific evidence is not yet substantial enough to really make that claim). If further research confirms what first tests have shown, then the Sorraia is an Iberian regional variant of the Tarpan, a remnant of an Iberian Tarpan population.

In summary, what we have in the way of evidence points clearly one way: for the Sorraia to be a primitive horse, a subspecies.

**) Willmann, "Die Art als Taxon und als Einheit der Natur", 1992, Entomol. Blätter, Bd.88

***) d'Andrade, "O Cavalo do Sorraia", 1945, Boletim Pecuario, XIII; "Apontamentos para um estudo sobre a origem e domesticaçã0 do cavallo na Peninsula Hiberica, Aproximações", 1926, Lisboa; "Alrededor del Caballo Español"; "Les Chevaux du Sorraia", 1935, Extrait des comptes rendus du XIIe Congrès International de Zoologie, Lisboa, "Elements pour une classification des Équidés actuels, d'après leurs caractères craniologiques et dentaires", 1937, Bulletin de la Société Portugaise des Sciences Naturelles

That is a valid point. Not enough effort has been made to preserve the Sorraia as a wild horse, instead, it has been treated and kept and bred recently much like any other breed, even in Portugal. As a result, the behavior in many has changed. However, much of the original wild behavior can still be observed in some herds, although most mares have been exposed to humans so much now and for so long, and some have been raised along with Lusitanos, so they don't shy away anymore if one approaches them. However, when I recently entered a huge pasture that contained about a dozen stallions - young ones and mature ones -, they fled as soon as they saw us, just like so many deer -, so their wildness hasn't been lost yet completely.

However, that's not the point. The way they have been kept and bred in recent decades did have an effect on them, no doubt. But when we discuss the status of the Sorraia, we ought to compare the Sorraia with Przewalski's horse. Przewalski's horses have been bred in captivity even longer, and were generally kept in zoos in little enclosures, while most Sorraias lived in pastures large enough to allow them to remain semi-wild. However, nobody denies the Przewalskis their status. Everything else has been the same with Przewalskis and Sorraias - registration in a studbook, Man making the mating decisions (thus breeding selectively), etc. So if one wants to call the Sorraia a breed due to these circumstances, one needs to do the same with Przewalski's horse (see diagram).

Regardless of how long Przewalski's horse is bred in zoos, the fact remains that its origin is that of a wild subspecies. And the same holds true with the Sorraia, at least we have reason to believe that.

DR. RUY D'ANDRADE ON THE SORRAIA

The following is an excerpt of an article by Ruy d'Andrade in Boletim Pecuário, XIII, 3. Lx., 1945 (some explanations added in parenthesis, bold Italics added by editor)

The horse … is to be found in the south of the (Iberian) peninsula, and I suppose it is the remaining specimen of a fauna dating from the beginning of the Pleistocene era, which persisted throughout the antiglacial period, when there was a horse related to the Pleistocene horses of the Sivalik Hills, and therefore one of the oldest geological periods of Asiatic origin. In the interglacial period (i. e. the last) it was to be found in Africa, where it may have survived throughout the preceeding glacial period, and also in the Hispanic southwest (Andalucia and Algarve), or it may have retreated from Africa through the isthmus which existed before the Straits of Gibraltar opened, which some believe to have occured in the Tertiary era.

How this group of horses was discovered

Many years ago I had already noticed that many foals out of mares of pure Andalusian breeding which I was raising in the Alto Alentejo (Elvas region), and others I had seen in Andalucia and in the region of the Tejo delta, were born with striped, straw-colored coats, especially those of yellow dun or grulla (mouse dun) color; many of whose stripes later disappeared completely as they became grey.

Later, in 1920, on a hunting trip in the region of Coruche, on the lower Sorraia (river), on the ‘Sesmaria’ estate, I saw a herd of ca. 30 individuals, more than half of them were light duns, some were grullas, many with superabundant stripes, and generally in all aspects absolutely wild, or primitive, as if they were a species of zebra, or a hemionus species.

When I later focused my attention on these characteristics, which I referred to in my various studies, I was able to find animals with these particular coat characteristics in all areas of the Tagus valley, the Alto Alentejo, as well as in the Guadalquivir valley, in total more than 300 individuals.

I then decided to reconstitute this primitive kind of horse, in order to find out if it was indeed the origin of our Andalusian horses, which are nowadays of larger frame und greater variety due to the crossbreeding they have been subjected to. So I set out to duplicate in an exclusive herd on my estate what had happened in the Americas, where through life in an authentic wild state the actual cimarron - or crioulo - (wild type) emerged.

However, the herd I had come across on the hunting trip had disappeared, and it was not possible, as had been my wish, to acquire it. Nevertheless, I tried to obtain some mares in that area with the same characteristics; I was able to get seven as founding stock of my herd from various herds at Coruche and vicinity. I bred them to horses of the same origin and bearing the same coat characteristics. After ten years, nearly all the original mares have perished, for they were already old when I had obtained them...

(Dr. Andrade then describes his herd as very homogeneous and goes on to describe the foundation mares in detail), and giving the measurements of the horses in his herd), giving the average measurements as follows:

Height at withers: 143 cm to 145 cm (14 + hh to 14,1 + hh)
Perimeter of thorax: 160 cm to 165 cm
Perimeter of cannon bone: 17,5 cm to 18 cm)

... I am convinced that, if they were moved to a more fertile environment, they would develop more fully. However, since what I was interested in was to promote their primitive characteristics, I deliberately kept them in their habitat, where, struggling against the neglect of the breeders there, and in spite of the dislike those had for their coat characteristics, they had somehow managed to keep their original characteristics, thus revealing that this environment favored their preservation and recovery...

... These reasons lead me to the conclusion that the equine group which I am dealing with here represents a primitive type of the Iberian Peninsula, from which the modern Andalusian and Lusitano stem, a group that interests the Argentinians because it is known that the animals of the Tagus (Tejo) delta and those of the Guadalquivir delta are of the same origin. In fact, our wild bovines (fighting bulls), so common here, and the horses of the Ribatejo are the same as the ones of the salt marshes of the Guadalquivir.

Are domestic horses descendants of one or more postglacial primeval horses?
Has there been one or more domestication events?
Are genotypes geographically linked?
Is the Sorraia horse the ancestor to modern Andalusians and Lusitanos?
Do the pony breeds of northern and western Europe have common ancestors?
Are Arabian and Barb horses related?
Is the Mongolian wild horse ancestral to domestic breeds?
 

The sheer number of different mtDNA types found indicates the existance of different postglacial primeval horses, which, according to zoological systematics, should be referred to as subspecies, and which evidently were sources for the domestication process. Considering the horse’s mtDNA mutation rate and the archeological timeframe, the results of this study would require a minimum estimate of 77 mares to have been recruited from the wild for the domestication process, and which must have successfully reproduced in captivity/domestication. This alone is unrealistic as an achievement of a single prehistoric community, but there is the geographical linkeage, which makes it simply impossible: Each of these 77 mares would also have been of different genotype, which means, according to the results of this study, that at least part of them stemmed from geographically distant areas! This presents a feat which to accomplish would have been absolutely unrealistic for any prehistoric community.

The conclusion can only be that the extensive genetic diversity of this (minimum) of 77 ancestral mares means that a number of distinct horse populations were involved in the domestication of the horse.
  

insufficiently documented pedigrees of C1 type were ponies, including Connemaras. Two ancient Viking horses were also found to have the C1 type. Another mtDNA type, cluster E, consisted entirely of Icelandic, Shetland, and Fjord ponies.

Another geographically striking cluster is D1. Its widespread distribution is no surprise, given the strong influence Iberian horses have had on most domestic breeds, but there is a clear frequency maximum in Iberian breeds, as well as in North African horses (Barbs). Due to the historical Spanish presence in the Americas, a high percentage of American mustangs could be expected to be also of this genotype, which mtDNA sequencing did indeed confirm (31 %). The results show clearly that Andalusians, Lusitanos, and Barbs stem from the same primeval population, but the almost complete absence of this genotype in Arabian horses (only 5 %) proves that Arab and Barb horses are not related and of different genetic origins.

A genotype found in Lusitanos (A3) is rather closely related to the one found in Sorraias, but it has yet to be established if these are all variants within one and the same genotype.

The Mongolian wild horse provides another geographically linked genotype (central Asia). Two mtDNA patterns were found for the Mongolian wild horse in this study. ISHIDA ET AL. had published a third mtDNA type for the Mongolian wild horse, but all three are closely related. It was found by Jansen et al. that the Mongolian wild horse had no ancestral role in regard to domestic horse breeds - the mtDNA patterns of the Mongolian wild horse were not found in any other breed or race. This is in agreement with ISHIDA ET AL., who had sampled only a few horses, while the new results were based on a much greater number of individuals.
 

MITOCHONDRIAL DNA AND THE ORIGINS OF THE DOMESTIC HORSE
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99 (16), pp. 10905-10910 (2002)

The Sorraia’s significant influence on the Andalusian and Lusitano, especially the latter, can’t be denied - too obvious are the Sorraia characteristics of many Lusitanos and not just a few Andalusians. This author has seen Lusitanos which were more or less indistinguishable from Sorraias. If such a Sorraia influence has not been proven through mtDNA analyses, it could be because mtDNA is passed on through the maternal line only. It is possible though that such an influence took place through male lines - and any influence through the paternal line will go unnoticed in mtDNA analyses.

In a scenario with a remnant population of wild horses and extensively-kept domestic horses, it has always been the same story the world over: wild stallions stealing domestic mares, or, if not stealing them, at least breeding them out in the fields. Such a stolen mare may later be reclaimed, but she might have conceived a foal by the wild stallion. Trouble with wild stallions was one of the main reasons for the extermination of

White markings occasionally occur even in wild species, as well as albinism and melanism. For instance, there have been spotted, and/or white, deer, elks, buffaloe, elephants; black foxes, wolves, squirrels, etc. If you were to preserve such species, would you pick the odd-colored ones to do that? Or would you rather try to preserve what's typical?

White markings also occur as a by-product of domestication and inbreeding, the latter often being linked to domestication. The extreme inbreeding in today's Sorraias alone would explain the occurence of an occasional white marking.

Also, the Portuguese National Stud don't seem to really appreciate their Sorraias for what they are, and have been treating them like so many domestic horses. They could easily get rid of what few they have that have some white, but they don't seem to care. The grandchildren of Ruy d'Andrade, who own most of today's Sorraia population, certainly do discriminate against white should it crop out.

The typical Sorraia is a dun or grulla of a lighter shade, without white, with a dark, "sooty“ face resp. muzzle area, bi-colored mane and tail, leg stripes in addition to the dorsal stripe, and sometimes stripes on the neck, over the back, and on the forehead (cobwebbing).

The different management in Alter do Chão (Portuguese National Stud) has resulted in a better production rate there (in 1998 they started to put a stallion out in the fields with the mares, while before that, they tried to handbreed these primitive horses). Also, some of the mares imported into Germany have had foals. The total number of maybe 180 head (including the foals) is of course nowhere near a viable population that would ensure the survival of the Sorraia, the most primitive Iberian horse we have today!

The Sorraia's head is rather long and has a convex, or subconvex, profile. This convexity is not just referring to a dropping nose, often called Roman nose, but a continuous convex line from poll to nostrils. The strongest curve in this line is below the eye, while towards the muzzle it becomes almost straight. The eye is set fairly high, the forehead is narrow, the ears medium long to long and not particularly curved. The whole head gives a clear, "dry", bony, refined appearance, as opposed to a meaty, coarse look.

A prominent set of withers is typical for the Sorraia, as is a long shoulder, a medium-long back, a sloping (but not dropping) hip. Protruding hip bones occur, especially in mares; the hips being on the narrow side and tapering towards the tail, in contrast to the "square" rear end of, for instance, the Quarter Horse.

The horse may be narrow, but has great depth of chest. Cannon bones are fairly long, so are the pasterns. The hooves are small to medium size. There is no excessive hair around the fetlock joints.

Sorraias show amazing flexibility vertically and laterally. They have great ability to collect themselves and are extremely agile. A certain amount of knee action is typical, as is a free, ground-covering trot. Some Sorraias are naturally gaited.

In color, all Sorraias are either grulla or regular dun (no red dun). In contrast to certain other duns, which may have a mealy mouth, Sorraias have a dark, "sooty" face mask and a dark muzzle area. A broad, dark, indistinct belly "stripe" runs under the middle of the belly. Mane and tail are bi-colored, i. e. the black middle part (extension of the dorsal stripe) is fringed by light-colored, often almost white, hair.

"Zebra" stripes on legs occur, sometimes also across the withers, on the neck, or over the back, as does "cobwebbing" on the forehead.

Sorraias typically don't have any white markings.

ZEBRO – WILD HORSE

No one knows for sure nowadays the meaning of the term "zebro" in Portuguese, and there is some difference of opinions. Fact is, though, that up until the Middle Ages, official documents differentiate between the zebro and other wild animals. The Portuguese author Arsénio Raposo Cordeiro ("The Lusitano Horse - Son of the Wind") wrote regarding this matter:

"The Sorraia horse is probably a surviver of the equine type which existed until recently in a wild state and which in the Middle Ages was called 'zebro'…"

Although some authors assume that the word 'zebro' refers to 'bull, cow, calf, or bullock', the Lisbon Charter of 1179 is clear on this matter. It distinguishes clearly between the hide of the bull, of the zebro, and of the deer, each costing half a maradevi (ancient Gothic coin used in Spain and Portugal). In the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, one still finds similar references to the zebro, then considered a distinct equine.

Curiously enough, even today one still can find various places between the rivers Tagus and Guadiana named 'Vale de Zebro' (zebro valley), always referring to areas which had been wilder, or less inhabited. In the same region one can also find places called 'Vale de Eguas' (valley of mares), and 'Vale de Cavalos' (valley of horses), thus distinguishing between the wild, or zebro, horse, and the domesticated horse, the Lusitano horse, its probable descendent.

As Ruy d'Andrade pointed out as early as 1926, it were the Portuguese who first used the term 'zebra' in Africa. to define an (wild) animal of the horse family…"

In my opinion, the fact that the Portuguese named the African wild horse species "zebra" is a really strong indication for "zebro" (or "zebra", both spellings did occur) to have been the Portuguese term for a wild horse. That the area that became a Sorraia Refuge now is one known as Vale de Zebro since medieval times, is actually the icing on the cake!

S. Lûcio de Azevedo's mentioned in "Épocas de Portugal Económico, Es boços de Histórica“ official prices for wild animals according to the hunting laws in the year1253. It says there regarding their hides: „Of the hides of wild animals, the zevro's (yet another spelling of the same term) is the most precious; they cost 30 soldos, more than those of wild bulls, which cost 27 soldos." The hides of elk and deer were even cheaper. In a different paragraph the worth of a dead zevro is given as 50 soldos, 30 for the hide and 20 for the meat.

Ruy d’Andrade wrote that a man from Benavente in Portugal first named the African wild horse "zebras" during a trip through the Congo in 1578, and that in 1450, in the Portuguese town of Evora the price for a zevro was ruled to be 2 dineros, from which he drew the conclusion that wild horses lived in that region at least until 1450.

NEW INFORMATION REGARDING THE ZEBRO

In search for the original meaning of the term zebro, whether it applies to a wild horse or some other wild animal, there has been a valuable contribution made by Jesús Alonso from Spain. It stood to reason that the "zebro's" habitat was not confined to Portugal, but spread over much of the Iberian Peninsula, but Jesús Alonso found evidence to that effect! Not only that, but what he found clearly shows that the term did indeed apply to a wild equid - obviously the animal that Ruy d'Andrade tried to rescue, which he named "Sorraia horse"!

Jesús Alonso found in Spain the Spanish counterparts to the Portuguese field names "Vale de Zebro", etc. The Spanish term for the zebro was "cebro", "encebro", or "encebra", and was in use in Spain up to the XVI century.

"They were wild equids, 'rat'-colored, and had stripes on the back and legs," says Alonso. "So they were probably nothing but Sorraias. Some Spanish town and field names still bear the word Encebro, Cebro, or Encebra, such as Encebras (villages in Cuenca, Alicante and Granada), Cebreros (a village in Avila), or the Cebreiro (a mountain pass in Galicia)."

  Encebras, in southern Spain, near
  Elda, near the Sierra del Carche, is
  just one of many town and field
  names in Spain that refer to the
  wild equid "encebro", or "zebro",
  that once roamed here












Evidently, the equid zebro, encebro, or encebra has been mentioned by different Spanish sources from the XIV to the XVI century in an area covering at least South, Central and Eastern Spain (that is where encebro-related field names are found). Jesús Alonso could also find historical sources where the encebro is mentioned, such as the book "El Libro de La Montería" (meaning "The Book of Hunting"), written in the first half of the XIV century under the auspices of king Alfonso XI of Castile. This book describes, often tediously, the best places for hunting within the domains of this king. It concentrates mainly on bear and boar, but says in one of the chapters about the medieval wildlife of Cartagena (in Murcia, southeastern Spain) that "encebras" lived there.

Besides in the El Libro de la Montería, encebras are mentioned in other sources: The "Relación de Chinchilla", written in 1576, describes the animals living around Chinchilla in southeastern Spain and describes the encebras as "ash-colored mares", resp. colored like rats, a bit short, whinnying as mares, and running faster than the best (riding) horse".

"Colored like rats" is indicating clearly that they were grullas, as the Portuguese term for grullas is "rato", which means "rat". This also strongly indicates that the original color of the Sorraia (or zebra, or encebra) was grulla/mouse-dun/rato, and not dun (baio). The "Arte Cisoria", written by a Valencian called E. de Villena, mentions encebra meat and says that it was eaten as a remedy against idleness/lazyness (back then, people often thought that by eating the flesh of an animal, that animal's energy, vitality, strength and abilities would become their own).

In the medieval tale "Romance del Rey Marsin" one of the verses says, "There goes King Marsin, a knight riding on a zebra, for lack of a (riding) horse".

The Libro de la Montería mentions encebras in the mountain areas of Murcia in book III, page 192, saying:
"The Villa Franca river is a good range for boar and enzebras in winter." "Cabezas de Copares is a good place for boar and enzebras in winter." "The Sierra de Zelchite is a good place for boar in winter and there are plenty of enzebras."

Here is a text found and translated by Jesús Alonso:

"Zebro is the name given in the middle ages, in Portugal, León and Castile, to a certain species of wild equine that lived in some parts of the Iberian peninsula until it became extinct towards the end of the XV century. In the kingdom of Aragon it was better known as Zebra or Encebra.
Medieval chronicles describe the zebro as a domestic ass-like animal, but taller, stronger and sturdier, besides being very fast and ill-tempered. The coat was greyish ("rat coat" is the term commonly used in medieval descriptions), interrupted by a black stripe along the back. It seems the nose was also black, and it had stripes on the legs. They lived in herds that preferred to wander on the plains, but withdrew to the mountain regions due to hunting and pressure from domestic stock.
Around the end of the XV century and beginning of the XVI century, the zebro disappears from the hunting chronicles, probably due to its extinction. However, there are isolated mentionings in later writings.
The zebro´s identity has been debated for a long time. At first it was thought they were simply feral asses of the North African species Equus asinus atlanticus, introduced a bit before the Roman conquest. But several aspects did not fit: their wild and unruly behaviour, their greater size and the fact that they were whinnying like horses. The possibility that it was an endemic species of the Iberian Peninsula grew stronger and stronger.
There are two curiosities left to tell about the zebro. First, that the last area where it was abundant, the southeast of Spain, kept some field names regarding this animal, such as Valdencebro (Teruel), Encebras (Alicante), or Las Encebras (Murcia) in Spain, and Ribeira de Zebro in the municipality of Moura, Portugal. Secondly, that when Portuguese started exploring the African coast and arrived at Cape Good Hope at the end of the XV century, they found striped equines that seemed to them very similar in shape and size to the zebros, so they called them zebras."

Fernando Prado from Brazil mentioned that a book titled "800 Years of Hunting in Portugal" describes the zebro as a hemionus (halfass). However, there are several reasons why that is unlikely:

1) Perhaps the strongest indication for the zebro to have been a horse, not a hemionus, is that the zebro is reported to have been whinnying like horses - no hemionus species does that.

2) Zebros are described as having had dark, or black, noses - which would be consistent with rato color, but not with the mealy mouth found in wild asses and halfasses.

3) None of the hemionus species have prominent leg stripes. Although they usually do have a dorsal stripe, and the Onager has a really broad one, their legs are light in color, mostly nearly white, as are their bellies and flanks. The Somali wild ass does have leg stripes, but even it doesn't have an appearance like the striped horses Ruy d'Andrade knew and portrayed, likely to remind the Portuguese explorer around Africa of their native wild equines when seeing zebras there... Especially the Quagga must have come pretty close in appearance to dun-factor horses as Ruy d'Andrade portrayed and desrcibed them. None of the wild asses and halfasses really resemble even remotely the zebra in color.

4) All hemionus species, and subspecies, are of a yellowish or reddish color, set off with whitish areas - Onager, Kiang, Khur, Kulan, Dschiggetai, and Syrian hemionus. None of them are what one could call rato (grulla). Of course one couldn't rule out the existence of a rato-colored hemionus subspecies in southwestern Europe, namely, Iberia, but that is really a far stretch, when all existing hemionus are more baio in color than rato (even though they differ from what we know as baios).

5) While archeologists and paleozoologists are agreed on the existence of a hemionus population in Europe (and a wild asinus population as well) in prehistoric times (to have become extinct 7,000 years ago at the latest), all hemionus species and subspecies are and were found in Asia and Arabia - far from Iberia. Again, it is some stretch to believe, and cries for substantiation, that they should have become extict everywhere else in northern Africa and the Mediterranean, but survived in Iberia - the farthest from their original stronghold.
Maybe something that one should also consider here is that Ruy d'Andrade, in his report of his first encounter with the wild bunch of horses that inspired him to pursue his Sorraia project, was reminded by them of a herd of hemionuses. It can't be ruled out that people less educated in equines than he was would simply have considered them to be - if not halfasses, because for that they would have had to be properly educated again - but a different kind of animal (species), which they called zebro/encebro. Today, Sorraias are becoming more and more small editions of the modern Lusitano, but there used to be those that were quite different in phenotype - leaner, with less muscling, rafter-hipped, often ewe-necked, and with ears that tend to be longish. Such horses, especially when in poor condition, definitely resemble a hemionus to a degree.

Jesús Alonso said:

"I do not think zebros were wild asses, not only because of the whinnying or the color, but also because there are no wild donkies in cave paintings or other paintings, or any artistic evidence of wild donkies living in the Iberian peninsula, and they are not mentioned by Greeks or Romans, who, on the other hand, mentioned the existence of wild horses."

A full brother to Sovina, born at Hardy Oelke's place in 2000, was shipped to Wisconsin in early 2001. His name is Tejo II, named after the majestic Portuguese river which dominates the region north of Lisbon, and into which the river Sorraia empties. Owner Karen Dalke has been doing research regarding the mustang's importance and role in the life of today's Americans. She also owns "Elle Est Féliciteé", a grulla Nevada mustang mare registered Tentative in the Sorraia Mustang Studbook.

Tejo II, a grullo of excellent Sorraia type and very sweet disposition, will hopefully establish himself as a sire of Sorraia Mustangs and later, of pure Sorraias. His dam is from the old d'Andrade herd, and his sire is still a herd sire there resp. at the National Stud in Alter do Chão. Tejo's sire and dam are both grullas.

Karen also expressed her hopes to be able to acquire some Sorraia mares in the future, to breed them to Tejo. Her plans for Tejo include not only to break him to the saddle, but also to drive him hitched to her 1903 doctor's buggy.

 

Sovina as a yearling while still in Germany. He has shed his winter coat since
and has raised eyebrows wherever he was exhibited.
Photo © Oelke

Tejo II – A Great-looking Specimen
Karen Dalke sent in this current shot of her Sorraia stallion Tejo II,
which – as everyone can see – is a very typical specimen, and is in
great shape.
Photo © Dalke

Gore Bay residents Kevin Droski and his wife, Lynne Gerard, have imported this Sorraia colt to breed to specific North American mustang mares that are similar in their appearance to the Iberian Sorraia horse, and to any Sorraia mares that may be brought to North America. Known as "Sorraia Mustangs", Sorraia-like mustangs are cropping out among mustang herds all over North America. By creating a Sorraia Mustang preserve at Ravenseyrie, their remote, 243 acre farm, Droski and Gerard hope to make a significant contribution to the consolidation of the Sorraia characteristics in select North American mustangs, perhaps eventually even strengthening the gene pool of the Iberian Sorraias.

"We feel our preserve will benefit the efforts to save the Sorraia as well as bring attention to the special qualities of Sorraia Mustangs," says Gerard. "Ravenseyrie is an excellent natural environment for breeding and raising these rare horses in a semi-wild setting. Kevin and I look forward to recording and sharing data on this project across the ocean and out west."

It has been a pleasure to be of service to Lynne and Kevin. I deeply appreciate their interest and aspiration for the reestablishment and preservation of that rare animal, the Sorraia-type mustang, and the effort and sacrifice they made to make a meaningful contribution to the cause. I'm impressed by their enthusiasm and diligence and sincerely hope that Altamiro will become the foundation sire of excellent strains of Sorraia Mustangs.

Adds Kevin Droski: "Our present mustang fillies, Bella and Belina, are a marvelous expression of many of the most desirable attributes of the horse. They are tough, smart, sensible and well suited to these rugged island conditions. A stunning addition to this landscape, their mere presence justifies the effort. The introduction of Altamiro promises to be both fascinating and productive."

It is of particular interest that Fernando Prado Ferreira has a grullo Lusitano stallion that in every way resembles a Sorraia in phenotype. This horse is one of the best Sorraia types alive anywhere, and the only difference is his size.

This summer, Fernando bought a Sorraia mare in Portugal, to import her to his home country, a mare that is in foal to a Sorraia stallion.

On November 4th, 2006, Vaiada, the Sorraia mare from Portugal, arrived in good condition in Brazil.

"This marks the first time since Brazil was a Portuguese colony that a Sorraia was brought back again to this country", Fernando commented proudly.

Fernando also found a Brazilian native horse, a crioulo, that looked exactly like a Sorraia. Unfortunately, that stallion died recently. He then located a son of this stallion that looked much like him. The horse wasn't for sale, though. It is a very good cow and ranch horse, the kind that a vaqueiro won't part with!

FIRST SORRAIA BORN IN BRAZIL

Fernando Prado Ferreira, who recently imported a Sorraia mare from Portugal, announced the birth of a foal out of that mare:

"I am very pleased to annnounce that Vaiada, my Sorraia mare bred by José Luis d`Andrade and imported to Brazil last November, gave birth to a healthy and good looking colt named Cabral, after the Portuguese Navigator who discovered Brazil in 1500. It is my belief that Cabral is the first Sorraia born in the Americas, which makes all of us especially proud. In reality, it is the return of the Sorraia as we know it today, since the colonial times of Portuguese America, now Brazil."

Cabral V.P. was born February 22, 2007.

In view of unnecessary inbreeding by the Portuguese in the past, it seems to be in order to report that recently, at least a certain interchange of Sorraia stallions has taken place between some breeders.

2003 had been a bad year for the Sorraias in Portugal, as very few foals were born and survived. 2004 was much better in that respect. In 2005, a number of foals were born - in spite of the draught - and also in 2006, which was a much better year in regard to the weather.

The greatest threat to the Sorraia's identity in Portugal is that it is increasingly treated like just another breed, and is thus losing rapidly the wild behavior and instincts. This is in sharp contrast to what Ruy d'Andrade saw in these horses and why he preserved them. This domestic breeding also tends to change the phenotype, and artificial measures taken in the reproduction of the horses allow individuals to reproduce which would have been eliminated under natural conditions - again, quite the opposite of Ruy d'Andrade's endeavour.

The Portuguese declared 2004 to be the "Year of the Sorraia Horse". However, they celebrated it by showing Sorraias in a variety of activities, just like they were so many small Lusitanos, or other domestic horses. It had not been Ruy d'Andrade's idea to create a new horse breed, one smaller than the Lusitano, as an alternative to the latter. He was convinced of the Sorraia's status as a primitive and indigenous Iberian horse. What is taking place today is not in keeping with his ideas and conviction. The only place where Sorraias are allowed to live wild and natural today is the newly established "Vale de Zebro Sorraia Horse Refuge" in Portugal (see separate chapter).

It may strike us a bit odd that two German horse experts contributed decisively to the awareness and preservation of the Sorraia horse. Michael Schaefer directed scientific interest to these horses and bred them for three decades on his farm near Munich, however without having any influence on their preservation in Portugal, the country of their origin. There, the government and private breeders more or less neglected this genetic treasure, which due to inbreeding and lack of interest was threatened to become extinct. Not until the mid-1990s was there a man whose interest in the Sorraias and whose engagement were to lead to a positive turn for them. The renowned western horse expert and author of specialized books Hardy Oelke, who has always been interested in primitive horses, found on a trip into American mustang country some mustangs that he thought resembled the Sorraia to an uncanny degree. He decided to travel to Portugal to see first-hand if that impression was correct. Because of the phenotypical similarities he subsequently initiated a mtDNA research which yielded significant results in various aspects.
 



The horses are difficult to see in the refuge, as there are plenty of opportunities for them to hide
Photo © Oelke


His first visit to Portugal made him already concerned about the Sorraias' situation in their homeland, an impression that got stronger with every visit. He decided to try and help these horses and in 1997 imported some to Germany, with more following later.

"Nowhere were the Sorraias treated as what Ruy d'Andrade believed them to be and why he tried to preserve them", explained Oelke. "And hardly anywhere were they kept under according conditions. Until 1998, there was a small group allowed to live under practically wild conditions, but they, too, have since come under a certain domesticating influence. Everywhere else they are treated increasingly like a domestic breed. I realized that only a reservation would enable at least some of these horses to retain their primitiveness. That had also basically been Ruy d'Andrade's intentions, only that his descendants didn't keep that up."

"It's the icing on the cake that the refuge lies in what is known as the "Vale de Zebro", i.e. a original habitat of these ancient Portuguse wild horses", Oelke says, "as 'zebro', for all we know, meant 'wild horse' in medieval times."

March 13, 2004 became a historical date for the Sorraias, as that's when Oelke's Sorraia mares arrived back in their home country and were released in the refuge as the nucleus of a new, wild herd. Their shipment there was made possible by the Germany-based Wiechers international transport service. They all arrived in good shape and immediately took possession of their new range. For more than a day they disappeared and were only viewed by Oelke due to sheer luck the following evening. When the mares spotted the intruder, they took to their heels in the blink of an eye.

"They showed that they haven't yet quite lost their instincts", said Oelke. "Here they can live as free and wild as is possibly in today's Europe, and have a chance to retain their primitive character."

As his own stallion was already too tame, and also the sire of one of the mares, he approached a grandson of Ruy d’Andrade, Fernando d'Andrade, for a stallion, who graciously agreed to support the project by lending a proven herd sire. Fernando d'Andrade's Sorraia herd is one of the most naturally kept, and is also genetically as distant from the mares as is possible in Portugal.

"The project should be put on as wide a genetic base as is possible under the circumstances", Oelke explained. "The mares stem from two different herds, and the stallion is now from yet another herd."

The stallion had had hardly any contact with humans and had to be driven on the truck by way of a chute. After having jumped off the truck in the refuge, he directly took to the woods - probably he had smelled the mares. He will hopefully sire some offspring within the next couple of years.

The refuge, which is not too far from the town of Coruche, is about five square kilometers in size. Climate, vegetation, and topography are similar to what the Sorraias were used to for millenniums, when they roamed the range as "zebros". Human intervention is going to be kept at an absolute minimum. Even scientific observations are not planned for the time being. The area is patrolled by armed forest rangers, but no one is going near the horses. Management is restricted to eventually taking out excess horses. According to the law of Nature, the weakest ones will be taken out whenever the herd will get to be too large.



THE VALE DE ZEBRO SORRAIA HORSE REFUGE

By Hardy Oelke

Yesterday, the mares had arrived and had been unloaded in the refuge. After two days on the road, they had seemed overjoyed by being released in such an ideal environment. My feelings were mixed - I had taken care of them for years, and they had grown on me. But I could not help but notice how they lost more and more of the wild behavior they had once possessed, and seeing what is being done with the Sorraias everywhere, how they are increasingly treated like a domestic breed, I am glad that this refuge could be realized, where they will lead as wild and natural a life as is possible in our modern times.

All morning we had been wandering over the refuge, seeing horse tracks here and there, but not a single horse. After lunch, I went back in alone, determined to search for them until I found them, or until it would get dark on me. Now the sun is already pretty low and I decide to head back toward the gate. My legs and feet hurt. I've done more walking today than I normally do in months…

One significant observation this project has already yielded: horses are generally viewed as steppe animals, as creatures of the open plains. Well, the Sorraia Refuge has several fairly flat and open valleys. The cows can be seen mostly in these bottom areas, feeding on the lush grass there. And I had certainly expected the horses to prefer these flat bottoms as their "living quarters". Quite to the contrary. They have taken to the forest almost immediately, and have never come out of it since! Unless they did so at night.

The forest here - mostly cork oak and pines, heather and bushes - is not dense and lets plenty of light in and offers good grazing. The horses seem to like it. Even if they should later - after having become more familiar with the surroundings and feeling more secure - go more often to the open valley bottoms, in other words, if their object of taking to the bush is to hide, it is still significant that they automatically seek security in the forest. If the theory were valid that the horse is an animal of the open grassland, where it can see danger from afar and take to its heels, then why do these reintroduced Sorraias retreat to the forest for security?

This morning we had been making too much noise, I'm sure. Even if everyone is cautious, a group of four men is bound to make some noise, and the horses could have avoided us easily. Going alone, I've tried to be really quite… I can't deny that I'm a bit disappointed not to have found them. I had been hoping to get a few photographs of them in their new habitat. On the other hand, I'm telling myself, "This is great!" It is exactly why this area was chosen, because it is so large and diversified, with hills, forest, bushes, etc., all of which makes it hard to see the horses, but make a wonderful environment for them. I'm reminding myself that it is exactly what I've hoped for all these years, and that it doesn't matter if I get a glimpse of them or not. What matters is that I've done for them the best I could, enabled to do so by the generous consent of the Cunhal Sendim family who own this land.

And all of a sudden I see a horse's tail moving between some pine trees! Well, I've found them after all, albeit by cheer luck! I slowly step a little bet closer, as noiselessly as I can. I get my camera ready, zoom in on them, and start shooting. At least I'll have some shots to show off! Then one of them notices me and in the blink of an eye they are all gone, like so many deer…

How wonderful! They have not yet lost their wild instincts completely. I well remember how they reacted even in the comparatively small and completely open pasture I kept them in at home, how in the beginning they had run away whenever one entered it. And how over the years, the distance of tolerance had continuously decreased. Hopefully, not being exposed to humans routinely in the future - not being interfered with at all - will result in a revitalization of their wild behavior. Maybe in a year's time one won't even be able to do what I just did - or at least not without a lot more cunning.

A few days later, a Sorraia stallion is hauled to the Sorraia Refuge and released there. He is from Fernando d'Andrade, whose Sorraias, especially the stallions, are still pretty wild and not being handled at all. He had to be driven into a round corral and from there into a chute, which the truck was backed up to, so he could be driven onto it. Fernando d'Andrade, a grandson of the great Dr. Ruy d'Andrade, is thus supporting the project, as he also is of the opinion that it is likely to help the Sorraia horse.

The stallion jumps off the truck, puts a little distance between himself and the people and starts sniffing the ground. Then he takes off rather dedicedly in one direction. Has he already smelled the mares?

After the truck and everybody else has left, I try to follow the stallion. Perhaps I have a chance to see him making contact with the mares… Every so often I stop and just listen, expecting to hear the typical screaming and squeaking horses make when introducing themselves - but there is nothing to hear except the wind in the trees, and sometimes the faraway clinking of the cows' bells. When the sun starts to set I leave, again a little disappointed, but with a more deeply felt satisfaction for the size of the Refuge and what it has to offer. The stallion and the mares are bound to meet soon, if they have not already done so. For them to be able to roam like their ancestors did is the main issue of this project, for them to hone their survival instincts, to be able to complete their diet with all sorts of plants besides grass, to stay surefooted… All this land is, by the way, not artificially fertilzed, and no chemicals are used for whatever reason, allowing a natural balance of plants to grow. For all these reasons, the area is ideal. After all, for all we know it is a land where wild horses used to roam in the past, because "Vale de Zebro", the name this area is known by, can be translated as "valley of wild horses".

What is the medium-term and long-term plan for the Vale de Zebro Sorraia Horse Refuge?

The short-term, medium-term, and final plan is to leave the horses to themselves and interfere with them as little as possible. Regarding the stallion now introduced, the plan is to take him out after two years; by then there should be some male offspring. The two strongest of the young stallions will be left in the Refuge, any additional ones will be taken out. Then it is left to the two stallions to battle over the mares. The area is large enough to allow for this, meaning it is large enough for a defeated stallion to retreat from a stronger one. As there are mares in the refuge from two different Sorraia herds, and the stallion now introduced is from yet another herd, we will have represented most of what genetic diversity can be found in today's Sorraias.

Any excess horses that need to be removed will always be the weaker ones, which Mother Nature eventually would have culled anyway. The eventual size of the population in the refuge is dependend of the Cunhal Sendim family, who own the land; it is their call to decide on the limit. They have been very supportive and are glad to be of service to a uniquely Portuguese cause, that of the zebro, or Sorraia horse!

This is the only herd now that is allowed to live wild, without human interference, or at least with the least possible interference. As in this day and age, everything has to be managed to a degree. The fact that the area is fenced in is, for instance, an interference. However, it stands to reason that the horses can't be allowed to go just anywhere, because then they would get lost. Even the mustangs in America, whose herd management areas may sometimes be the size of half of Portugal, need to be managed, in order to keep numbers in check and allow other wildlife to prosper. What will be different in the Vale de Zebro Sorraia Refuge compared to some other places where Sorraias are kept under fairly natural consitions is:

- In the Refuge the stallions are not going to be separated from the mares, but stay with them all year round, and the young stock is not separated either, allowing for a natural interaction and social structure.

- Young horses will grow up under natural conditions, and not together with domestic horses (Lusitanos), as is the case with several Sorraia breeders in Portugal nowadays, including the National Stud (Coudelaria Nacional). Being raised with Lusitanos, they adapt the Lusitanos' tame behavior.

- Mares and foals will not get their manes and tails roached, as is customary with most breeders, which not only looks awful, but robs the horses of natural protection, and the process is bound to desensitize them. And it is of course completely unnatural anyway.

- The horses born in the Refuge are not going to be branded, or handled in any way.

As of June 2006, everything in the Refuge has been going fine. If one could ask the horses, they would most likely say: "More than just fine. This is GREAT!"

Fortunatey, the terrible draught in 2005 did not affect the Refuge adversely. Because of the size of the area, and the diverse vegetation, the horses did not have to suffer in any way. It's also very fortunate that the area was spared from the wildfires. Rough roads have been cleared as firebreakers, and also to give access to the firefighters in case of an outbreak. And all relevant people have been instructed as to what to do in case of an emergency. These things are good to know...

Late in the summer of 2005, the stallion had driven away the two yearling colts, which was to be expected. They have become very shy, living in hiding where the trees are pretty dense. They had not yet joined to form a bachelor band. It was with great difficulty - and considerable help of lady luck - that we were able to locate them at all. One day we saw one, a couple days later we happened on the other one. They both looked like they are coping well. It's going to be interesting to see if and when and how they are going to join the mares again, once the old stallion has been removed, which is going to happen this summer (2006), as the lease has run out.